Visual Localization on Cambridge Landmarks
9King's Positional Error (cm)GS-RelocNet (PR)
Evaluation results
| Method | Links | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| GS-RelocNet (PR)Mapping Time=hrs, Pose Refine=true, Size (MB)=>1002026.05 | 9 | — | — | 0.15 | 10 | 0.19 | 3 | 0.15 | 5 | 0.13 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| HLoc (SP+SG)Method Category=FM2025.03 | 11 | 17.7 | 0.11 | 0.2 | 15.1 | 0.31 | 4.2 | 0.2 | 7 | 0.22 | 11 | 0.21 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| OursMap Size=~90MB2026.01 | 11 | 16 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 14 | 0.3 | 4 | 0.2 | 7 | 0.2 | 10 | 0.2 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| HLoc (SP+SG)Mapping Time=0, Pose Refine=false, Size (MB)=~8002026.05 | 11 | 17.7 | 0.11 | 0.2 | 15.1 | 0.31 | 4.2 | 0.2 | 7 | 0.22 | 11 | 0.21 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| GS-RelocNetMapping Time=hrs, Pose Refine=false, Size (MB)=>1002026.05 | 11 | — | — | 0.19 | 13 | 0.26 | 4 | 0.18 | 7 | 0.15 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| Hloc (SP+SG)Method category=FM, Map Size=~800MB2026.01 | 12 | 16 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 15 | 0.3 | 4 | 0.2 | 7 | 0.2 | 11 | 0.2 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| Hloc (SP+LG)Method category=FM, Map Size=~800MB2026.01 | 12 | 18 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 15 | 0.3 | 4 | 0.2 | 7 | 0.2 | 11 | 0.2 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| Ours (Micro)Map Size=~16MB2026.01 | 12 | 16 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 16 | 0.3 | 4 | 0.2 | 8 | 0.3 | 11 | 0.2 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| GS-RelocNet (PR)Mapping Time=6min, Pose Refine=true, Size (MB)=~802026.05 | 12 | — | — | 0.18 | 13 | 0.25 | 5 | 0.19 | 7 | 0.2 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| SP+SGMethod Category=DB, MB=32152026.07 | 12 | — | — | 0.2 | 15 | 0.3 | 4 | 0.2 | 7 | 0.21 | 10 | 0.23 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| NeRFMatchMethod Category=NeRF/GS2025.03 | 12.5 | 19.6 | 0.09 | 0.23 | 20.9 | 0.38 | 8.4 | 0.4 | 10.9 | 0.35 | 14.5 | 0.29 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| NeRFMatchMapping Time=hrs, Pose Refine=true, Size (MB)=~552026.05 | 12.5 | 19.6 | 0.09 | 0.23 | 20.9 | 0.38 | 8.4 | 0.4 | 10.9 | 0.35 | 14.5 | 0.29 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| AS (SIFT)Method Category=FM2025.03 | 13 | 24 | 0.13 | 0.22 | 20 | 0.36 | 4 | 0.21 | 8 | 0.25 | 13.8 | 0.23 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| AS (SIFT)Method category=FM, Map Size=~200MB2026.01 | 13 | 24 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 20 | 0.4 | 4 | 0.2 | 8 | 0.3 | 14 | 0.2 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| Hloc (Aliked+LG)Method category=FM, Map Size=~660MB2026.01 | 13 | 19 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 16 | 0.3 | 4 | 0.2 | 7 | 0.2 | 12 | 0.2 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| AS (SIFT)Mapping Time=0, Pose Refine=false, Size (MB)=~2002026.05 | 13 | 24 | 0.13 | 0.22 | 20 | 0.36 | 4 | 0.21 | 8 | 0.25 | 13.8 | 0.23 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| ASMethod Category=DB, MB=8132026.07 | 13 | — | — | 0.22 | 20 | 0.36 | 4 | 0.21 | 8 | 0.25 | 11 | 0.26 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| NeuMapMethod Category=SCR2025.03 | 14 | 6 | 0.1 | 0.19 | 19 | 0.36 | 6 | 0.25 | 17 | 0.53 | 12.4 | 0.29 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| pixLocMethod category=FM, Map Size=~600MB2026.01 | 14 | 30 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 16 | 0.3 | 5 | 0.2 | 10 | 0.3 | 15 | 0.2 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| PixLocMapping Time=0, Pose Refine=true, Size (MB)=~6002026.05 | 14 | 30 | 0.14 | 0.24 | 16 | 0.32 | 5 | 0.23 | 10 | 0.34 | 15 | 0.25 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| GeoMixMethod Category=DF, MB=692026.07 | 14 | — | — | 0.37 | 27 | 0.82 | 6 | 0.73 | 23 | 0.72 | 18 | 0.66 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| SplitGS-LocMapping Time=7min, Pose Refine=false, Size (MB)=972026.05 | 14.1 | 9.3 | 0.06 | 0.17 | 13.8 | 0.29 | 2.5 | 0.12 | 3.8 | 0.13 | 8.7 | 0.15 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| STDLocMethod Category=NeRF/GS2025.03 | 15 | 15.7 | 0.06 | 0.17 | 11.9 | 0.21 | 3 | 0.13 | 4.7 | 0.14 | 10.1 | 0.14 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| Hloc (RoMa)Method category=FM, Map Size=~300MB2026.01 | 15 | 17 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 17 | 0.3 | 7 | 0.3 | 8 | 0.2 | 13 | 0.2 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| DSAC* (Full)Method category=SCR, Map Size=28MB2026.01 | 15 | 49 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 21 | 0.4 | 5 | 0.3 | 13 | 0.4 | 21 | 0.3 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| Ours (Nano)Map Size=~2MB2026.01 | 15 | 18 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 19 | 0.4 | 5 | 0.3 | 9 | 0.3 | 13 | 0.3 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| STDLoc (PR)Mapping Time=2h, Pose Refine=true, Size (MB)=4152026.05 | 15 | 15.7 | 0.06 | 0.17 | 11.9 | 0.21 | 3 | 0.13 | 4.7 | 0.14 | 10.1 | 0.14 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| RAP+Mapping Time=hrs, Pose Refine=true, Size (MB)=~802026.05 | 15 | 22 | 0.15 | 0.23 | 18 | 0.38 | 5 | 0.23 | 9 | 0.23 | 13.8 | 0.24 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| DSAC*Method Category=E2E, MB=1122026.07 | 15 | — | — | 0.3 | 21 | 0.4 | 5 | 0.3 | 13 | 0.4 | 14 | 0.35 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| A2-GNNMethod Category=DF, MB=692026.07 | 15 | — | — | 0.39 | 59 | 1.74 | 12 | 1.16 | 76 | 2.65 | 41 | 1.49 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| STDLocMapping Time=2h, Pose Refine=false, Size (MB)=162026.05 | 15.2 | 13.1 | 0.08 | 0.17 | 18.6 | 0.36 | 3.5 | 0.17 | 5.3 | 0.19 | 11.1 | 0.19 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| PlugGS-LocMapping Time=7min, Pose Refine=false, Size (MB)=162026.05 | 15.9 | 11.7 | 0.08 | 0.18 | 16.7 | 0.37 | 2.9 | 0.13 | 6 | 0.21 | 10.6 | 0.2 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| GSFFs-PRMapping Time=hrs, Pose Refine=true, Size (MB)=>1002026.05 | 17 | — | — | 0.26 | 18 | 0.36 | 4 | 0.25 | 8 | 0.26 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| DSAC*Method Category=SCR2025.03 | 17.9 | 33 | 0.21 | 0.31 | 21.1 | 0.4 | 5.2 | 0.24 | 15.4 | 0.51 | 18.5 | 0.33 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| Poker (ACE x 4)Method category=SCR, Map Size=16MB2026.01 | 18 | 28 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 25 | 0.5 | 5 | 0.3 | 9 | 0.3 | 17 | 0.3 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| DSAC*Mapping Time=15h, Pose Refine=false, Size (MB)=282026.05 | 18 | 34 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 21 | 0.4 | 5 | 0.3 | 15 | 0.6 | 19 | 0.4 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| HSCNetMethod Category=E2E, MB=5922026.07 | 18 | — | — | 0.3 | 19 | 0.3 | 6 | 0.3 | 9 | 0.3 | 13 | 0.3 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| DGC-GNNMethod Category=DF, MB=692026.07 | 18 | — | — | 0.47 | 75 | 2.83 | 15 | 1.57 | 106 | 4.03 | 54 | 2.23 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| ACE (Poker)Method Category=SCR2025.03 | 18.6 | 27.9 | 0.14 | 0.33 | 25.7 | 0.51 | 5.1 | 0.26 | 9.5 | 0.33 | 17.4 | 0.31 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| GLACEMethod Category=SCR2025.03 | 18.9 | 19 | 0.12 | 0.32 | 18 | 0.42 | 4.4 | 0.23 | 8.4 | 0.29 | 13.7 | 0.28 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| GLACEMethod category=SCR, Map Size=13MB2026.01 | 19 | 19 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 17 | 0.4 | 4 | 0.2 | 9 | 0.3 | 14 | 0.3 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| GLACEMapping Time=20min, Pose Refine=false, Size (MB)=132026.05 | 19 | 19 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 17 | 0.4 | 4 | 0.2 | 9 | 0.3 | 14 | 0.3 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| GSVisLoc+Mapping Time=hrs, Pose Refine=true, Size (MB)=~802026.05 | 23 | — | — | 0.3 | 22 | 0.42 | 8 | 0.29 | 14 | 0.45 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| PNeRFLocMethod Category=NeRF/GS2025.03 | 24 | 81 | 0.25 | 0.29 | 28 | 0.37 | 6 | 0.27 | 40 | 0.55 | 35.8 | 0.35 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| PNeRFLocMapping Time=hrs, Pose Refine=true, Size (MB)=~502026.05 | 24 | 81 | 0.25 | 0.29 | 28 | 0.37 | 6 | 0.27 | 40 | 0.55 | 35.8 | 0.35 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| GoMatchMethod category=FM, Map Size=~12MB2026.01 | 25 | — | — | 0.6 | 283 | 8.1 | 48 | 4.8 | 335 | 9.9 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| GoMatchMethod Category=DF, MB=482026.07 | 25 | — | — | 0.64 | 283 | 8.14 | 48 | 4.77 | 335 | 9.94 | 173 | 5.87 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| ACEMethod category=SCR, Map Size=4MB2026.01 | 28 | 43 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 31 | 0.6 | 5 | 0.3 | 18 | 0.6 | 25 | 0.4 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| ACEMapping Time=5min, Pose Refine=false, Size (MB)=42026.05 | 28 | 43 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 31 | 0.6 | 5 | 0.3 | 18 | 0.6 | 25 | 0.4 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| GSplatLocMapping Time=hrs, Pose Refine=true, Size (MB)=>1002026.05 | 31 | — | — | 0.49 | 16 | 0.68 | 4 | 0.34 | 14 | 0.42 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| SANetMethod category=SCR, Map Size=~260MB2026.01 | 32 | 328 | 2 | 0.5 | 32 | 0.5 | 10 | 0.5 | 16 | 0.6 | 84 | 0.8 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| DFNet+NeFeS50Method Category=NeRF/GS2025.03 | 37 | — | — | 0.54 | 52 | 0.88 | 15 | 0.53 | 37 | 1.14 | 35.3 | 0.77 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| SRCMethod category=SCR, Map Size=40MB2026.01 | 39 | 81 | 0.5 | 0.7 | 38 | 0.5 | 19 | 1 | 31 | 1 | 42 | 0.7 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| Reloc3rMethod Category=E2E, MB=102942026.07 | 42 | — | — | 0.36 | 62 | 0.55 | 13 | 0.58 | 34 | 0.58 | 38 | 0.52 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| CROSSFIREMethod Category=NeRF/GS2025.03 | 47 | — | — | 0.7 | 43 | 0.7 | 20 | 1.2 | 39 | 1.4 | 37.3 | 1 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| CROSSFIREMapping Time=15h, Pose Refine=true, Size (MB)=502026.05 | 47 | — | — | 0.7 | 43 | 0.7 | 20 | 1.2 | 39 | 1.4 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| HybridSCMethod category=FM, Map Size=~1MB2026.01 | 81 | — | — | 0.6 | 75 | 1 | 19 | 0.5 | 50 | 0.5 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| HybridSCMethod Category=DB, MB=32026.07 | 81 | — | — | 0.59 | 75 | 1.01 | 19 | 0.54 | 50 | 0.49 | 56 | 0.66 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| MS-Trans.Method Category=E2E, MB=712026.07 | 83 | — | — | 1.47 | 181 | 2.39 | 86 | 3.07 | 162 | 3.99 | 128 | 2.73 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| ACEPrivacy Vulnerability=N/A, Real-time performance=✓2026.04 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 28 | 0.4 | 31 | 0.6 | 5 | 0.3 | 18 | 0.6 | — | — | — | — | |
| ACEvariant=Poker2026.05 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 18.6 | 0.33 | 25.7 | 0.51 | 5.1 | 0.26 | 9.5 | 0.33 | 27.9 | 0.14 | 17.4 | 0.31 | |
| AS (SIFT)Features=SIFT2026.05 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 13 | 0.22 | 20 | 0.36 | 4 | 0.21 | 8 | 0.25 | 24 | 0.13 | 13.8 | 0.23 | |
| CROSSFIRE2026.05 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 47 | 0.7 | 43 | 0.7 | 20 | 1.2 | 39 | 1.4 | — | — | 37.3 | 1 | |
| DCLPrivacy Vulnerability=✗, Real-time performance=✓2026.04 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 25 | 0.4 | 38 | 0.7 | 10 | 0.4 | 16 | 0.5 | — | — | — | — | |
| DFNet+NeFeS50Backbone=ResNet-502026.05 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 37 | 0.54 | 52 | 0.88 | 15 | 0.53 | 37 | 1.14 | — | — | 35.3 | 0.77 | |
| DGC-GNNPrivacy Vulnerability=✓, Real-time performance=✓2026.04 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 18 | 0.47 | 75 | 2.83 | 15 | 1.57 | 106 | 4.03 | — | — | — | — | |
| DSAC*Privacy Vulnerability=N/A, Real-time performance=✓2026.04 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 18 | 0.3 | 21 | 0.4 | 5 | 0.3 | 15 | 0.6 | — | — | — | — | |
| DSAC*SCR=true2026.05 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 17.9 | 0.31 | 21.1 | 0.4 | 5.2 | 0.24 | 15.4 | 0.51 | 33 | 0.21 | 18.5 | 0.33 | |
| GLACEPrivacy Vulnerability=N/A, Real-time performance=✓2026.04 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 19 | 0.3 | 17 | 0.4 | 4 | 0.2 | 9 | 0.3 | — | — | — | — | |
| GoMatchPrivacy Vulnerability=✓, Real-time performance=✓2026.04 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 25 | 0.64 | 283 | 8.14 | 48 | 4.77 | 335 | 9.94 | — | — | — | — | |
| GSFF PrivacyPrivacy Vulnerability=✓, Real-time performance=✗2026.04 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 24 | 0.39 | 26 | 0.49 | 5 | 0.27 | 13 | 0.48 | — | — | — | — | |
| HLocFeatures=SuperPoint, Matcher=SuperGlue2026.05 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 11 | 0.2 | 15.1 | 0.31 | 4.2 | 0.2 | 7 | 0.22 | 17.7 | 0.11 | 11 | 0.21 | |
| HLoc(SP+NN)Privacy Vulnerability=N/A, Real-time performance=✓2026.04 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 12 | 0.2 | 15 | 0.3 | 4 | 0.2 | 8 | 0.2 | — | — | — | — | |
| HLoc(SP+SG)Privacy Vulnerability=N/A, Real-time performance=✓2026.04 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 12 | 0.2 | 15 | 0.3 | 4 | 0.2 | 7 | 0.2 | — | — | — | — | |
| LiteLoccondensing=true2026.05 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 15.41 | 0.16 | 9.02 | 0.19 | 4.66 | 0.26 | 7.67 | 0.31 | 7.92 | 0.05 | 8.9 | 0.19 | |
| LiteLoc (w/o Cond.)condensing=false2026.05 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 15.9 | 0.18 | 9.14 | 0.21 | 4.6 | 0.25 | 7.6 | 0.31 | 7.96 | 0.05 | 9.04 | 0.2 | |
| NeRFMatch2026.05 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 12.5 | 0.23 | 20.9 | 0.38 | 8.4 | 0.4 | 10.9 | 0.35 | 19.6 | 0.09 | 14.5 | 0.29 | |
| NeuMap2026.05 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 14 | 0.19 | 19 | 0.36 | 6 | 0.25 | 17 | 0.53 | 6 | 0.1 | 12.4 | 0.29 | |
| PNeRFLoc2026.05 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 24 | 0.29 | 28 | 0.37 | 6 | 0.27 | 40 | 0.55 | 81 | 0.25 | 35.8 | 0.35 | |
| Random LinesPrivacy Vulnerability=✓, Real-time performance=✓2026.04 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 11 | 0.2 | 16 | 0.3 | 4 | 0.2 | 7 | 0.2 | — | — | — | — | |
| SegLocPrivacy Vulnerability=✓, Real-time performance=-2026.04 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 24 | 0.26 | 36 | 0.52 | 11 | 0.34 | 17 | 0.46 | — | — | — | — | |
| STDLoc2026.05 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 15 | 0.17 | 11.9 | 0.21 | 3 | 0.13 | 4.7 | 0.14 | 15.7 | 0.06 | 10.1 | 0.14 |