Image Classification on CIFAR-10C Severity Level 5 (test)
7Average Error Rate (Severity 5)Ours
Evaluation results
| Method | Links | |||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| OursVenue=Proposed2026.05 | 7 | — | 15 | 10.1 | 7.7 | 6.8 | 12.6 | 5.8 | 4.7 | 4.8 | 4.5 | 4.5 | 2.9 | 3.7 | 8.4 | 5.2 | 9 | — | — | |
| AcTTACMFBackbone=ResNeXt, Severity Level=52026.03 | 9.41 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| AcTTAROIDBackbone=ResNeXt, Severity Level=52026.03 | 9.43 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| AcTTAETABackbone=ResNeXt, Severity Level=52026.03 | 9.46 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| AcTTATENTBackbone=ResNeXt, Severity Level=52026.03 | 9.53 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| AcTTADeYOBackbone=ResNeXt, Severity Level=52026.03 | 9.56 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| ROIDBackbone=ResNeXt, Severity Level=52026.03 | 9.62 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| CMFBackbone=ResNeXt, Severity Level=52026.03 | 9.67 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| DeYOBackbone=ResNeXt, Severity Level=52026.03 | 9.73 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| ETABackbone=ResNeXt, Severity Level=52026.03 | 9.74 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| TENTBackbone=ResNeXt, Severity Level=52026.03 | 10.28 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| Neuro-Modulated Hebbian LearningBackbone=WRN-40-22023.03 | 10.7 | — | 13.4 | 12.3 | 15 | 7.5 | 16 | 8.7 | 7.7 | 9.1 | 9.6 | 10.1 | 6.4 | 8.2 | 13.3 | 9.3 | 13.3 | — | — | |
| PAIDVenue=NeurIPS’252026.05 | 11 | — | 22.9 | 11.8 | 9.9 | 9.1 | 16.7 | 10.8 | 7.4 | 7.4 | 6.6 | 11.4 | 4.5 | 9.3 | 12.8 | 9.4 | 14.5 | — | — | |
| DUABackbone=WRN-40-2, Severity=52021.12 | 12.1 | — | 15.4 | 13.4 | 17.3 | 8 | 18 | 9.1 | 7.7 | 10.8 | 10.8 | 12.1 | 6.6 | 10.9 | 13.6 | 13 | 14.3 | — | — | |
| DUABackbone=WRN-40-2, Severity=Level 52021.12 | 12.1 | — | 15.4 | 13.4 | 17.3 | 8 | 18 | 9.1 | 7.7 | 10.8 | 10.8 | 12.1 | 6.6 | 10.9 | 13.6 | 13 | 14.3 | — | — | |
| TENTBackbone=WRN-40-22023.03 | 12.1 | — | 15.7 | 13.2 | 18.8 | 7.9 | 18.1 | 9 | 8 | 10.4 | 10.8 | 12.4 | 6.7 | 10 | 14 | 11.4 | 14.8 | — | — | |
| DUABackbone=WRN-40-22023.03 | 12.1 | — | 15.4 | 13.4 | 17.3 | 8 | 18 | 9.1 | 7.7 | 10.8 | 10.8 | 12.1 | 6.6 | 10.9 | 13.6 | 13 | 14.3 | — | — | |
| TENTBackbone=WRN-40-2, Severity=52021.12 | 12.3 | — | 15.8 | 13.5 | 18.7 | 8.1 | 18.7 | 9.1 | 8 | 10.3 | 10.8 | 11.7 | 6.7 | 11.6 | 14.1 | 11.7 | 15.2 | — | — | |
| TENTBackbone=WRN-40-2, Severity=Level 52021.12 | 12.3 | — | 15.8 | 13.5 | 18.7 | 8.1 | 18.7 | 9.1 | 8 | 10.3 | 10.8 | 11.7 | 6.7 | 11.6 | 14.1 | 11.7 | 15.2 | — | — | |
| RMTSource-free=false, Updates=42022.11 | 12.5 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| CMAEVenue=CVPR’242026.05 | 12.6 | — | 30.6 | 18.9 | 11.5 | 10.4 | 22.5 | 13.9 | 9.8 | 6.6 | 6.5 | 8.8 | 4 | 8.5 | 12.7 | 9.2 | 14.4 | — | — | |
| AcTTASARBackbone=ResNeXt, Severity Level=52026.03 | 12.95 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| SARBackbone=ResNeXt, Severity Level=52026.03 | 12.97 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| BNBackbone=ResNeXt, Severity Level=52026.03 | 13.31 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| RMTSource-free=false, Updates=12022.11 | 13.9 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| RMTSource-free=true, Updates=12022.11 | 14.5 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| NORMBackbone=WRN-40-22023.03 | 14.6 | — | 18.7 | 16.4 | 22.3 | 9.1 | 22.1 | 10.5 | 9.7 | 13 | 13.2 | 15.4 | 7.8 | 12 | 16.4 | 15.1 | 17.6 | — | — | |
| APMTeacher Model=CLIP ViT-L/14, Weight Retention=Weights reinitialized after each test sample, Initialization=Randomly initialized weights2024.10 | 14.8 | 3.5 | 21.9 | 22.1 | 13.7 | 15.2 | 34.1 | 11.9 | 11.1 | 15 | 9 | 13.5 | 5.8 | 9.5 | 23 | 15.8 | 17 | — | — | |
| TRIBEVenue=AAAI’242026.03 | 15.3 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| DPCoreVenue=ICML’252026.05 | 15.4 | — | 22 | 18.2 | 14.9 | 14.3 | 24.4 | 13.9 | 12 | 11.6 | 10.7 | 15 | 5.7 | 21.8 | 15.6 | 12.7 | 18 | — | — | |
| GTTA-MIXSource-free=false, Updates=42022.11 | 15.6 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| COTTASource-free=true, Updates=12022.11 | 16.2 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| AcTTACMFBackbone=WRN28, Severity Level=52026.03 | 16.39 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| AcTTAROIDBackbone=WRN28, Severity Level=52026.03 | 16.43 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| AcTTAETABackbone=WRN28, Severity Level=52026.03 | 16.74 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| AcTTATENTBackbone=WRN28, Severity Level=52026.03 | 17.03 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| AcTTADeYOBackbone=WRN28, Severity Level=52026.03 | 17.11 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| CMFBackbone=WRN28, Severity Level=52026.03 | 17.36 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| ROIDBackbone=WRN28, Severity Level=52026.03 | 17.52 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| Neuro-Modulated Hebbian LearningBackbone=WRN-28-102023.03 | 17.6 | — | 23.6 | 21.4 | 30.9 | 11 | 31.1 | 13 | 10.9 | 14.2 | 15.5 | 13 | 8 | 10.3 | 21.8 | 16.7 | 22.4 | — | — | |
| SourceBackbone=ResNeXt, Severity Level=52026.03 | 17.98 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| ETABackbone=WRN28, Severity Level=52026.03 | 18.07 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| SourceBackbone=WRN-40-2, Severity=52021.12 | 18.3 | — | 28.8 | 22.9 | 26.2 | 9.5 | 20.6 | 10.6 | 9.3 | 14.2 | 15.3 | 17.5 | 7.6 | 20.9 | 14.7 | 41.3 | 14.7 | — | — | |
| SourceBackbone=WRN-40-2, Severity=Level 52021.12 | 18.3 | — | 28.8 | 22.9 | 26.2 | 9.5 | 20.6 | 10.6 | 9.3 | 14.2 | 15.3 | 17.5 | 7.6 | 20.9 | 14.7 | 41.3 | 14.7 | — | — | |
| SourceBackbone=WRN-40-22023.03 | 18.3 | — | 28.8 | 22.9 | 26.2 | 9.5 | 20.6 | 10.6 | 9.3 | 14.2 | 15.3 | 17.5 | 7.6 | 20.9 | 14.7 | 41.3 | 14.7 | — | — | |
| DeYOBackbone=WRN28, Severity Level=52026.03 | 18.31 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| AdaContrastSource-free=true, Updates=12022.11 | 18.5 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| TENTBackbone=WRN28, Severity Level=52026.03 | 18.51 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| TENTBackbone=WRN-28-102023.03 | 18.6 | — | 24.8 | 23.5 | 33 | 12 | 31.8 | 13.7 | 10.8 | 15.9 | 16.2 | 13.7 | 7.9 | 12.1 | 22 | 17.3 | 24.2 | — | — | |
| TTT-OnlineWeight Retention=Retain weights after every TTT iteration, Initialization=Randomly initialized weights2024.10 | 19.1 | 8.2 | 25.8 | 22.6 | 30.6 | 14.6 | 34.4 | 18.3 | 17.1 | 20 | 18 | 16.9 | 11.2 | 15.6 | 21.6 | 18.1 | 21.2 | — | — | |
| DUABackbone=WRN-28-102023.03 | 19.9 | — | 27.4 | 24.6 | 35.3 | 13.1 | 34.9 | 14.6 | 11.6 | 16.8 | 17.5 | 13.1 | 7.6 | 14.1 | 22.7 | 19.3 | 26.2 | — | — | |
| TM-ENTNetwork=WideResNet-40-22025.05 | 19.9 | — | 25.4 | 23.5 | 22.7 | 14 | 29.2 | 16.9 | 14.4 | 19.9 | 19 | 21.8 | 11.3 | 15.1 | 20.8 | 21.7 | 22.1 | — | — | |
| TM-NORMNetwork=WideResNet-40-22025.05 | 20.2 | — | 26.1 | 23.8 | 23 | 14.5 | 29.1 | 17.2 | 14.9 | 20.4 | 18.8 | 22.6 | 11.9 | 15.2 | 21.3 | 21.5 | 22.7 | — | — | |
| BN-1Source-free=true2022.11 | 20.4 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| NORMBackbone=WRN-28-102023.03 | 20.4 | — | 28.1 | 26.1 | 36.3 | 12.8 | 35.3 | 14.2 | 12.1 | 17.3 | 17.4 | 15.3 | 8.4 | 12.6 | 23.8 | 19.7 | 27.3 | — | — | |
| AcTTASARBackbone=WRN28, Severity Level=52026.03 | 20.54 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| SARBackbone=WRN28, Severity Level=52026.03 | 20.55 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| BNBackbone=WRN28, Severity Level=52026.03 | 20.61 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| ResiTTA + MCMMCM integration=true2026.03 | 20.69 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| TENT-cont.Source-free=true, Updates=12022.11 | 20.7 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| ViDAVenue=ICLR’242026.05 | 20.7 | — | 52.9 | 47.9 | 19.4 | 11.4 | 31.3 | 13.3 | 7.6 | 7.6 | 9.9 | 12.5 | 3.8 | 26.3 | 14.4 | 33.9 | 18.2 | — | — | |
| UDA-SS2024.10 | 21.4 | 9 | 28.2 | 26.5 | 20.8 | 15.6 | 43.7 | 24.5 | 23.8 | 25 | 24.9 | 17.2 | 12.7 | 11.6 | 22.1 | 20.3 | 22.6 | — | — | |
| PeTTA + MCMMCM integration=true2026.03 | 21.55 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| RoTTA + MCMMCM integration=true2026.03 | 22.59 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| ResiTTAVenue=ICASSP’252026.03 | 22.8 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| TENTNetwork=ResNet-20, Pre-training=without TM2025.05 | 23.2 | — | 32.1 | 28.9 | 38.7 | 16 | 37 | 17.4 | 15.1 | 22.4 | 21.4 | 18 | 10.6 | 15.6 | 25.1 | 23.6 | 25.5 | — | — | |
| TENTVenue=ICLR’212026.05 | 23.5 | — | 57.7 | 56.3 | 29.4 | 16.2 | 35.3 | 16.2 | 12.4 | 11 | 11.6 | 14.9 | 4.7 | 22.5 | 15.9 | 29.1 | 19.5 | — | — | |
| TM-ENTNetwork=WideResNet-40-2, batchsize=12025.05 | 23.6 | — | 27.7 | 25.9 | 24.6 | 17.3 | 33.3 | 20.7 | 17.4 | 24.5 | 22.3 | 24.7 | 14.5 | 26.1 | 24.1 | 25.4 | 26.2 | — | — | |
| NORMNetwork=ResNet-20, Pre-training=without TM2025.05 | 23.7 | — | 32.4 | 28.9 | 38.7 | 15.8 | 37.2 | 17.4 | 15.1 | 22.5 | 21.3 | 18.1 | 10.6 | 16.2 | 25 | 24 | 25.7 | — | — | |
| TM-NORMNetwork=WideResNet-40-2, batchsize=12025.05 | 23.9 | — | 28.1 | 25.8 | 24.8 | 17.5 | 33.1 | 21 | 18 | 24.5 | 22.7 | 24.8 | 14.5 | 26 | 24.5 | 26 | 26.8 | — | — | |
| VDPVenue=AAAI’232026.05 | 24.1 | — | 57.5 | 49.5 | 31.7 | 21.3 | 35.1 | 19.6 | 15.1 | 10.8 | 10.3 | 18.1 | 4 | 27.5 | 18.4 | 22.5 | 19.9 | — | — | |
| PeTTAVenue=NeurIPS’242026.03 | 24.3 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| CLIP ViT-L/14Mode=Zeroshot2024.10 | 24.5 | 4.63 | 35.4 | 32.3 | 21.9 | 19.3 | 49.7 | 19.3 | 17.3 | 17 | 15.1 | 21.6 | 8.4 | 15.9 | 34.6 | 25 | 27.4 | — | — | |
| CoTTAVenue=CVPR’222026.05 | 24.6 | — | 58.7 | 51.3 | 33 | 20.1 | 34.8 | 20 | 15.2 | 11.1 | 11.3 | 18.5 | 4 | 34.7 | 18.8 | 19 | 17.9 | — | — | |
| TM-ENTNetwork=ResNet-202025.05 | 24.8 | — | 34.5 | 31.1 | 39.7 | 17 | 38.3 | 18.7 | 16.4 | 25.1 | 24 | 20 | 11.4 | 18.7 | 25.6 | 24.3 | 26.9 | — | — | |
| RoTTAVenue=CVPR’232026.03 | 25.2 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| TM-NORMNetwork=ResNet-202025.05 | 25.2 | — | 34.7 | 31.9 | 40 | 17.2 | 39.1 | 19.1 | 16.3 | 25.4 | 24.5 | 20.2 | 11.7 | 18.9 | 26.2 | 24.7 | 27.8 | — | — | |
| TM-NORMNetwork=VGG-16m2025.05 | 25.5 | — | 32.4 | 31.1 | 37.5 | 18.1 | 37 | 21 | 18.4 | 26.9 | 25.6 | 24.7 | 13.5 | 25.4 | 23 | 24.8 | 23.1 | — | — | |
| TM-ENTNetwork=VGG-16m2025.05 | 25.6 | — | 32.1 | 31 | 37.3 | 18.2 | 36.7 | 21.1 | 18.6 | 27.1 | 25.7 | 24.8 | 13.7 | 25.6 | 23.5 | 24.5 | 23.3 | — | — | |
| Neuro-Modulated Hebbian LearningBackbone=ResNet-262023.03 | 25.8 | — | 33.2 | 30.6 | 38.2 | 17.7 | 41.2 | 20.8 | 17.4 | 24 | 27.2 | 20.4 | 13.5 | 21.1 | 28.4 | 23.7 | 28.9 | — | — | |
| TM-NORMNetwork=ResNet-19m2025.05 | 25.9 | — | 36 | 33.7 | 42.1 | 17.5 | 40.5 | 19.9 | 16.3 | 25 | 25.1 | 20.4 | 11.6 | 19.6 | 27.5 | 25.3 | 27.7 | — | — | |
| TM-ENTNetwork=ResNet-19m2025.05 | 26.3 | — | 36.4 | 34.3 | 43 | 17.9 | 41 | 20 | 16.7 | 25.5 | 25.2 | 20.7 | 11.9 | 20 | 27.8 | 26 | 28.1 | — | — | |
| DUABackbone=ResNet-26, Severity=52021.12 | 26.8 | — | 34.9 | 32.6 | 42.2 | 18.7 | 40.2 | 24 | 18.4 | 23.9 | 24 | 20.9 | 12.3 | 27.1 | 27.2 | 26.2 | 28.7 | — | — | |
| DUABackbone=ResNet-262023.03 | 26.8 | — | 34.9 | 32.6 | 42.2 | 18.7 | 40.2 | 24 | 18.4 | 23.9 | 24 | 20.9 | 12.3 | 27.1 | 27.2 | 26.2 | 28.7 | — | — | |
| SourceVenue=ICLR’212026.05 | 28.2 | — | 60.1 | 53.2 | 38.3 | 19.9 | 35.5 | 22.6 | 18.6 | 12.1 | 12.7 | 22.8 | 5.3 | 49.7 | 23.6 | 24.7 | 23.1 | — | — | |
| TENTBackbone=ResNet-262023.03 | 30.7 | — | 39.4 | 38.8 | 47.9 | 19.9 | 45 | 23.2 | 20.6 | 28.1 | 32.1 | 24.5 | 16.1 | 26.7 | 32.4 | 30.6 | 35.5 | — | — | |
| NOTEVenue=NeurIPS’222026.03 | 31.1 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| RDumbVenue=NeurIPS’232026.03 | 31.1 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| TTTBackbone=ResNet-26, Severity=52021.12 | 31.4 | — | 45.6 | 41.8 | 50 | 21.8 | 46.1 | 23 | 23.9 | 29.9 | 30 | 25.1 | 12.2 | 23.9 | 22.6 | 47.2 | 27.2 | — | — | |
| TTTBackbone=ResNet-262023.03 | 31.4 | — | 45.6 | 41.8 | 50 | 21.8 | 46.1 | 23 | 23.9 | 29.9 | 30 | 25.1 | 12.2 | 23.9 | 22.6 | 47.2 | 27.2 | — | — | |
| SourceNetwork=WideResNet-40-22025.05 | 32 | — | 49.7 | 44.7 | 43.7 | 17.5 | 43.7 | 22.2 | 18 | 27.9 | 34.9 | 31.6 | 14.3 | 40.9 | 26.7 | 39.2 | 24.7 | — | — | |
| NORMBackbone=ResNet-26, Severity=52021.12 | 32.9 | — | 44.6 | 43.7 | 49.1 | 29.4 | 45.2 | 26.2 | 26.9 | 25.8 | 27.9 | 23.8 | 18.3 | 34.3 | 29.3 | 37 | 32.5 | — | — | |
| NORMBackbone=ResNet-262023.03 | 32.9 | — | 44.6 | 43.7 | 49.1 | 29.4 | 45.2 | 26.2 | 26.9 | 25.8 | 27.9 | 23.8 | 18.3 | 34.3 | 29.3 | 37 | 32.5 | — | — | |
| TM-ENTNetwork=MobileNet-162025.05 | 34.1 | — | 47.1 | 46.1 | 44.2 | 24.7 | 40 | 27.7 | 24 | 34.2 | 35.4 | 37.7 | 21.4 | 37.3 | 28.9 | 32.8 | 30.3 | — | — | |
| TM-NORMNetwork=MobileNet-162025.05 | 34.3 | — | 47 | 45.5 | 44.7 | 24.7 | 40.2 | 27.8 | 24.7 | 34.7 | 35.4 | 37.8 | 21.5 | 37.3 | 30 | 32.5 | 29.9 | — | — | |
| LAMEVenue=CVPR’222026.03 | 39.5 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| Source onlySource-free=true2022.11 | 43.5 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| SourceBackbone=WRN-28-102023.03 | 43.5 | — | 72.3 | 65.7 | 72.9 | 46.9 | 54.3 | 34.8 | 42 | 25.1 | 41.3 | 26 | 9.3 | 46.7 | 26.6 | 58.5 | 30.3 | — | — | |
| SourceVenue=-2026.03 | 43.5 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| SourceBackbone=WRN28, Severity Level=52026.03 | 43.52 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — |