ResearchBenchmarksExternal joint torque estimation on Follower WAM armExternal joint torque estimation on Follower WAM armFollow1.22Joint 2 NRMSE (%)2c-GC-FF0.76043.86276.96510.0673Jul 1, 2026Evaluation resultsMethodMethodLinksJoint 2 NRMSE (%)Joint 4 NRMSE (%)2c-GC-FFController=2c-GC-FFController=2c-GC-FF2026.071.222.622c-DCController=2c-DCController=2c-DC2026.075.959.544c-GCController=4c-GCController=4c-GC2026.078.315.832c-GCController=2c-GCController=2c-GC2026.0711.1410.994c-DCController=4c-DCController=4c-DC2026.0711.729.932c-GC-LFBController=2c-GC-LFBController=2c-GC-LFB2026.0712.715.11