XR Text Entry on Various XR Text-Entry User Studies Survey Table 2012-2024
0.37Error Rate (%)HGaze Typing (Head + Gaze)
Evaluation results
| Method | Links | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| HGaze Typing (Head + Gaze)Modality=Head + Gaze, Error Evaluation Metric=Minimum String Distance (MSD) Error, Participants=10, Year=20212026.04 | 0.37 | 11.22 | |
| Speech + Midair KeyboardModality=Speech + Hand-tracking, Error Evaluation Metric=Character Error Rate (CER), Participants=18, Year=20202026.04 | 0.5 | 27.9 | |
| On-arm QWERTY (AR)Study=Darbar et al. (2024), Notes=Wearable on-arm keyboard2026.06 | 0.7 | 20.3 | |
| Gaussian Speedup (Gaze-Assisted)Modality=Hand + Gaze, Error Evaluation Metric=Word Error Rate (WER), Participants=12, Year=20232026.04 | 0.71 | 17.1 | |
| Hand-tracking + 3D KeysModality=Hand-tracking, Error Evaluation Metric=Character Error Rate (CER), Participants=28, Year=20242026.04 | 0.85 | 14.73 | |
| Wrist-Only Gesture TypingModality=Hand, Error Evaluation Metric=Word Error Rate (WER), Participants=12, Year=20232026.04 | 0.98 | 16.4 | |
| Hand-tracking + 2D KeysModality=Hand-tracking, Error Evaluation Metric=Character Error Rate (CER), Participants=28, Year=20242026.04 | 0.98 | 12.78 | |
| Dwell-time Gaze TypingModality=Gaze, Error Evaluation Metric=Minimum String Distance (MSD) Error, Participants=10, Year=20162026.04 | 1.01 | 9.5 | |
| Speedup (Gaze-Assisted)Modality=Hand + Gaze, Error Evaluation Metric=Word Error Rate (WER), Participants=12, Year=20232026.04 | 1.01 | 17.6 | |
| Head + TapModality=Head, Error Evaluation Metric=Total Error Rate (TER), Participants=12, Year=20192026.04 | 1.06 | 5.62 | |
| Controller + 3D KeysModality=Controller, Error Evaluation Metric=Character Error Rate (CER), Participants=28, Year=20242026.04 | 1.17 | 16.52 | |
| Midair Keyboard Only (NoSpeech)Modality=Hand-tracking, Error Evaluation Metric=Character Error Rate (CER), Participants=18, Year=20212026.04 | 1.2 | 11.1 | |
| EyeSwipe (Dwell-free)Modality=Gaze, Error Evaluation Metric=Minimum String Distance (MSD) Error, Participants=10, Year=20162026.04 | 1.31 | 11.7 | |
| Controller + TapModality=Controller, Error Evaluation Metric=Total Error Rate (TER), Participants=12, Year=20192026.04 | 1.65 | 14.6 | |
| Eye-shaped (VR)Study=Wang et al. (2023), Notes=Raycast typing with curved layout2026.06 | 1.9 | 19.9 | |
| Controller + 2D KeysModality=Controller, Error Evaluation Metric=Character Error Rate (CER), Participants=28, Year=20242026.04 | 1.91 | 14.08 | |
| Flat Keyboard + Sitting + DwellModality=Gaze, Error Evaluation Metric=Rate of Backspace Activation (RBA), Participants=16, Year=20182026.04 | 2 | 9.36 | |
| H4VR 4-key (VR)Study=Fallah & MacKenzie (2023), Notes=Ambiguous keyboard using gestures2026.06 | 2 | 4.6 | |
| TapTypeModality=Head, Error Evaluation Metric=Total Error Rate (TER), Participants=6, Year=20172026.04 | 2.02 | 15.58 | |
| DesktopKeyboard + NoRepositionModality=Desktop Keyboard, Error Evaluation Metric=Character Error Rate (CER), Participants=24, Year=20182026.04 | 2.1 | 26.3 | |
| Mid-air QWERTY (VR)Study=Dudley et al. (2023), Notes=Hand-tracked typing in mid-air2026.06 | 2.25 | 25.6 | |
| DesktopKeyboard + RepositionModality=Desktop Keyboard, Error Evaluation Metric=Character Error Rate (CER), Participants=24, Year=20182026.04 | 2.4 | 25.5 | |
| Touchscreen Keyboard + NoRepositionModality=Touchscreen Keyboard, Error Evaluation Metric=Character Error Rate (CER), Participants=24, Year=20182026.04 | 2.7 | 11.6 | |
| GlanceWriter (Exp I)Modality=Gaze, Error Evaluation Metric=Word Error Rate (WER), Participants=14, Year=20232026.04 | 2.71 | 10.89 | |
| S-Gaze&FingerModality=Hand + Gaze, Error Evaluation Metric=Total Error Rate (TER), Participants=16, Year=20222026.04 | 2.9 | 10.66 | |
| S-Gaze&HandModality=Hand + Gaze, Error Evaluation Metric=Total Error Rate (TER), Participants=16, Year=20222026.04 | 2.98 | 9.49 | |
| Curved Keyboard + Sitting + ClickModality=Gaze, Error Evaluation Metric=Rate of Backspace Activation (RBA), Participants=16, Year=20182026.04 | 3 | 9.15 | |
| Curved Keyboard + Biking + ClickModality=Gaze, Error Evaluation Metric=Rate of Backspace Activation (RBA), Participants=16, Year=20182026.04 | 3 | 8.29 | |
| Hands-free (VR)Study=Wan et al. (2024), Notes=Dwell and blink-based gaze selection2026.06 | 3 | 8.5 | |
| Dasher selection-based inputStudy=Vertanen & Kristensson (2011), Notes=Gaze/gesture continuous input2026.06 | 3 | 12 | |
| AirTapModality=Hand, Error Evaluation Metric=Total Error Rate (TER), Participants=16, Year=20222026.04 | 3.54 | 11.37 | |
| TouchscreenKeyboard + RepositionModality=Touchscreen Keyboard, Error Evaluation Metric=Character Error Rate (CER), Participants=24, Year=20182026.04 | 3.6 | 8.8 | |
| DwellTypeModality=Head, Error Evaluation Metric=Total Error Rate (TER), Participants=6, Year=20172026.04 | 3.69 | 10.59 | |
| Head + Keyboard ButtonModality=Head, Error Evaluation Metric=Relative Error Rate, Participants=15, Year=20122026.04 | 3.8 | 4.42 | |
| Hybrid + TapModality=Head + Hand, Error Evaluation Metric=Total Error Rate (TER), Participants=12, Year=20192026.04 | 3.85 | 8.53 | |
| Flat Keyboard + Biking + DwellModality=Gaze, Error Evaluation Metric=Rate of Backspace Activation (RBA), Participants=16, Year=20182026.04 | 4 | 8.07 | |
| Curved Keyboard + Biking + DwellModality=Gaze, Error Evaluation Metric=Rate of Backspace Activation (RBA), Participants=16, Year=20182026.04 | 4 | 6.77 | |
| Freehand keyboard (VR)Study=Grubert et al. (2018), Notes=Typing in mid-air with hand tracking2026.06 | 4 | 15 | |
| Dwell-TypingModality=Gaze, Error Evaluation Metric=Total Error Rate (TER), Participants=16, Year=20222026.04 | 4.06 | 9.5 | |
| GestureTypeModality=Head, Error Evaluation Metric=Total Error Rate (TER), Participants=6, Year=20172026.04 | 4.21 | 19.04 | |
| Key-ButtonSwitch (KBS)Modality=Controller, Error Evaluation Metric=Total Error Rate (TER), Participants=24, Year=20242026.04 | 4.46 | 15.08 | |
| Layer-ButtonSwitch (LBS)Modality=Controller, Error Evaluation Metric=Total Error Rate (TER), Participants=24, Year=20242026.04 | 4.65 | 15.94 | |
| Physical keyboard (VR)Study=Knierim et al. (2018), Notes=Different hand representations in VR2026.06 | 5 | 12 | |
| Selection-based text entry (VR)Study=Speicher et al. (2018), Notes=Menu and dwell-based selection2026.06 | 5 | 5 | |
| Chorded keyboard (VR)Study=McGill et al. (2015), Notes=Compact input method2026.06 | 5 | 6 | |
| Virtual keyboard (VR)Study=McGill et al. (2015), Notes=Substantial slowdown2026.06 | 5.5 | 8.6 | |
| Eye-typing with Dwell (OptiKey)Modality=Gaze, Error Evaluation Metric=Uncorrected Error Rate, Participants=18, Year=20212026.04 | 5.7 | 13 | |
| GestureType (trained)Modality=Head, Error Evaluation Metric=Total Error Rate (TER), Participants=12, Year=20172026.04 | 5.82 | 24.73 | |
| Curved Keyboard + Sitting + DwellModality=Gaze, Error Evaluation Metric=Rate of Backspace Activation (RBA), Participants=16, Year=20182026.04 | 6 | 7.48 | |
| Head + Mouth Open GestureModality=Head, Error Evaluation Metric=Relative Error Rate, Participants=13, Year=20122026.04 | 6 | 3.07 | |
| Eye-gaze typingStudy=Majaranta & Räihä (2002), Notes=Dwell-based gaze selection2026.06 | 6 | 5 | |
| Hand + TapModality=Hand, Error Evaluation Metric=Total Error Rate (TER), Participants=12, Year=20192026.04 | 6.48 | 6.74 | |
| EyeSwipeModality=Gaze, Error Evaluation Metric=Word Error Rate (WER), Participants=14, Year=20232026.04 | 6.85 | 6.49 | |
| Flat Keyboard + Sitting + ClickModality=Gaze, Error Evaluation Metric=Rate of Backspace Activation (RBA), Participants=16, Year=20182026.04 | 7 | 10.15 | |
| DwellModality=Gaze, Error Evaluation Metric=Error Rate, Participants=12, Year=20212026.04 | 7 | — | |
| Touch + ControllerModality=Controller, Error Evaluation Metric=Selection Error Rate, Participants=24, Year=20232026.04 | 7.3 | — | |
| Touch + HandModality=Hand, Error Evaluation Metric=Selection Error Rate, Participants=24, Year=20232026.04 | 7.3 | — | |
| Gaze + Keyboard ButtonModality=Gaze, Error Evaluation Metric=Relative Error Rate, Participants=15, Year=20122026.04 | 8 | 10.98 | |
| Flat Keyboard + Biking + ClickModality=Gaze, Error Evaluation Metric=Rate of Backspace Activation (RBA), Participants=16, Year=20182026.04 | 8 | 8.58 | |
| Raycast + ControllerModality=Controller, Error Evaluation Metric=Selection Error Rate, Participants=24, Year=20232026.04 | 8.1 | 11.8 | |
| Raycast + HandModality=Hand, Error Evaluation Metric=Selection Error Rate, Participants=24, Year=20232026.04 | 8.1 | — | |
| Split KeyboardModality=Controller, Error Evaluation Metric=Total Error Rate (TER), Participants=22, Year=20192026.04 | 8.11 | 10.17 | |
| Standard Qwerty Keyboard (STD)Modality=Controller, Error Evaluation Metric=Total Error Rate (TER), Participants=24, Year=20242026.04 | 8.27 | 13.23 | |
| Layer-PointSwitch (LPS)Modality=Controller, Error Evaluation Metric=Total Error Rate (TER), Participants=24, Year=20242026.04 | 8.64 | 12.04 | |
| NeckTypeModality=Head, Error Evaluation Metric=Total Error Rate (TER), Participants=36, Year=20202026.04 | 9.04 | 11.18 | |
| DwellTypeModality=Head, Error Evaluation Metric=Total Error Rate (TER), Participants=36, Year=20202026.04 | 9.64 | 11.65 | |
| Head-directed InputModality=Controller, Error Evaluation Metric=Total Error Rate (TER), Participants=22, Year=20192026.04 | 10.15 | 10.83 | |
| BlinkTypeModality=Gaze + Blink, Error Evaluation Metric=Total Error Rate (TER), Participants=36, Year=20202026.04 | 10.44 | 13.47 | |
| ClickModality=Gaze + Controller, Error Evaluation Metric=Error Rate, Participants=12, Year=20212026.04 | 11 | — | |
| RaycastingModality=Controller, Error Evaluation Metric=Total Error Rate (TER), Participants=22, Year=20192026.04 | 11.05 | 16.65 | |
| Cascading Dwell Gaze TypingModality=Gaze, Error Evaluation Metric=Total Error Rate (TER), Participants=17, Year=20172026.04 | 11.08 | 12.39 | |
| Drum-like KeyboardModality=Controller, Error Evaluation Metric=Total Error Rate (TER), Participants=22, Year=20192026.04 | 12.11 | 21.01 | |
| GlanceWriter (Exp II)Modality=Gaze, Error Evaluation Metric=Word Error Rate (WER), Participants=12, Year=20232026.04 | 12.89 | 9.54 | |
| PinchModality=Gaze + Hand, Error Evaluation Metric=Error Rate, Participants=12, Year=20212026.04 | 13 | — | |
| Tobii Communicator 5Modality=Gaze, Error Evaluation Metric=Word Error Rate (WER), Participants=12, Year=20232026.04 | 16.32 | 7.41 | |
| Static Dwell Gaze TypingModality=Gaze, Error Evaluation Metric=Total Error Rate (TER), Participants=17, Year=20172026.04 | 16.83 | 10.62 | |
| Head + Brows Up GestureModality=Head, Error Evaluation Metric=Relative Error Rate, Participants=13, Year=20122026.04 | 21 | 2.85 |