A Hierarchical Framework for Graph Structure Learning in Histopathology Image Classification

The spatial organization of cells and tissues provides important diagnostic cues in histopathology images. Although graph-based approaches can model these relationships, many rely on fixed or heuristic graph structures that may not accurately represent tissue connectivity. In this work, we propose $G_2^*$-Net, an optimized two-level graph learning framework for classifying large-scale histopathology images, such as whole-slide images (WSIs) or large regions of interest (ROIs). Here, $G_2$ denotes the two-level hierarchical graph representation, and the superscript $*$ indicates the optimized image-level graph structure learned from the proposed framework. The method first divides each WSI or large ROI into image patches, constructs cell-level graphs within each patch to capture local tissue architecture, and then represents each patch as a node in a learnable image-level graph. $G_2^*$-Net formulates image-level graph structure learning as a second-order bilevel optimization problem, separating graph connectivity learning from classifier optimization while coupling them through validation-driven feedback. To make this formulation computationally practical, we adopt a DARTS-inspired one-step unrolled approximation for efficient hypergradient estimation. Experimental validation on three distinct histopathology datasets demonstrates the effectiveness of our proposed method.

Sudipta Paul, Amanda W. Lund, Bülent Yener · 2026